BIOLOGY REFLECTION!

What was your favorite topic this semester? Why?    My favorite topic of the year was doing the music lab were we rapped about cells!  It was the most fun and I had a good time with howie and robert.
What was your least favorite?   My least favorite was the grasshopper lab... I hate bugs!
What would you change about this class if you could?    Less work LOL!
What do you feel is your biggest accomplishment in biology this year?   Passing the first semester of biology! Hip Hip Hooray!

The Oreo Bear Is Having Trouble T.T

Dear Mama Oreo Bear,
   Life is hard here in China,  for some reason we have to share our bamboo.  The great leader, Mao ZeOreo, took all of the bamboo for himself and is not sharing with me.  I am so hungry I've resorted to advertisement in America.  You might see me in commercials diving for food.  Don't be alarmed it's just my way of making a living.  They barely pay me because I am a follower of Mao ZeOreo, and must share my earnings.
   Mama I am sorry!  I should of went to college so that maybe I wouldn't be so miserable.  I can barely move to go to rivers to get water, and have no strength to even break bamboos anymore.  I fear that I won't be alive anymore so I wrote you this letter.  In this letter is a song, and I hope you imagine me singing it.

Oh the great leader Mao ZeOreo
Ruined the life of all black and white bear-eos
I don't want to share my bamboo
I don't want to live off my own poo
I want the oreeo bears to live on proud
I want Mao ZeOreo to fall from his cloud

哦，伟大领袖毛泽东ZeOreo
毁了生活的所有黑色和白色熊EOS
我不想分享我的竹
我不想住在我自己的便便
我想oreeo熊住上自豪
我想毛泽东ZeOreo落在他的云

Food Web! 'Cause I'm A Spider!

Primary producers (organisms that make their own food from sunlight and/or chemical energy from deep sea vents) are the base of every food chain - these organisms are called autotrophs.
Primary consumers are animals that eat primary producers; they are also called herbivores (plant-eaters).
Secondary consumers eat primary consumers. They are carnivores (meat-eaters) and omnivores (animals that eat both animals and plants).
Tertiary consumers eat secondary consumers.
Quaternary consumers eat tertiary consumers.
Food chains "end" with top predators, animals that have little or no natural enemies.
An example of a Primary producer would be a tree or grass because they create their own food from energy.  Then primary consumers, such as a deer, are herbivores (plant-eaters); And eat primary producers.  Secondary consumers, such as a fox, or either carnivores or omnivores (meat-eaters or meat and plant eaters); And eat the primary consumers.  The tertiary consumers, such as a Golden eagle, eat the Secondary consumers.  And the Quaternary, or top predator, eat almost anything with little or no natural enemies (for example a Brown bear or a Lion).


reference:  http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/foodchain/

Does Geographical Distribution Supports Evolution? Question to Life!

Give an example of how geographic distribution can support evolution? 



The fossils of a animal will be near the geography of where it died. Such as a bird fossil; if we are able to study the difference between birds now and there fossils we will be able to study changes over time and evolution.  So if we find a fossil of a finch in the Galapagos islands, we can see the differences of each bird


References- http://www.google.com/imgres?q=fossils&um=1&hl=en&safe=active&client=safari&sa=N&rls=en&biw=1278&bih=843&tbm=isch&tbnid=YZVdvAsHMt4E8M:&imgrefurl=http://museumvictoria.com.au/discoverycentre/infosheets/marine-fossils/introduction/&docid=qaHE9migSrlOTM&imgurl=http://museumvictoria.com.au/pages/444/mn015696.jpg&w=289&h=284&ei=LfhYT8y2EMagiQLz2t2sCw&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=688&vpy=483&dur=476&hovh=181&hovw=184&tx=131&ty=73&sig=106118596005183164299&page=1&tbnh=155&tbnw=158&start=0&ndsp=23&ved=1t:429,r:15,s:0&surl=1 

Human Lineage! Ancestors!

Sahelanthropus tchadensis

It was discovered in Chad from deposits that have been dated by biostratigraphy to between 6 and 7 million years in age.  Many fossils of other animals were recovered at the same site as Sahelanthropus, suggesting that the habitat, a dry desert today, was then a lush lakeshore with extensive forests around it.  This piece when reconstructed was nicknamed Toumai, which means ‘hope of life’ in the local Goran language.  The cranium housed a small brain, estimated to be around 360 cc in volume.  This is approximately the same size as a contemporary African ape.  It is not surprising that a creature that lived so close to the divergence time of the human and chimpanzee lineages (according to molecular data) should show primitive characteristics.  Bipedality (walking on two legs) is one of the most diagnostic characteristics of humans and their ancestors.  The very large brow ridges of Toumai are unexpected.  This feature does not appear in human ancestors until Homo erectus, some 5 to 6 million years later.

Australopithecus afarensis

The first specimens attributed to Australopithecus afarensis were discovered in the 1970’s by Donald Johanson working in the Afar Triangle of Ethiopia at the site of Hadar.  The remains from all sites attributed to Au. afarensis have been dated to between 3.9 and 3.0 million years.  This is a long time span, indicating that this taxon was a successful species of hominin, persisting for almost a million years.  Paleoanthropologists working in Ethiopia and Tanzania over the last 40 years have recovered almost 400 specimens ofAu. afarensis, including fossils from adult and juvenile males and females.  These specimens have been invaluable for telling us about the differences between males and females, and for giving insight into how Au. afarensis individuals changed as they aged.  Some of this information is coming from a spectacular recent discovery from Dikika in Ethiopia, across the river from Hadar: the relatively complete skeleton of a three year old female.  The skull of Au. afarensis is characterized by a prognathic (projecting) face and a relatively small brain.  Brain size estimates range from 380-550 cc, which is somewhat larger than the average contemporary chimpanzee.  There is a wealth of postcranial bones belonging to this species, including the partial skeleton of Lucy, officially designated AL 288-1.  Au. afarensis certainly was bipedal (walked fully upright on two legs), but there has been considerable debate among researchers on exactly how this species walked.  The Laetoli footprints, the shape of the pelvis, the curvature of the vertebral column, and the anatomy of the knee all indicate Au. afarensis walked on two legs.  However, there are many differences in anatomy between this taxon and modern humans, which have led some paleoanthropologists to argue that Au. afarensis incorporated a degree of arboreal climbing into its locomotor repertoire. and its stride, or gait, was not like ours.  These differences include proportionally short legs and longer arms, long, curved finger and toe bones, and subtle differences in the bones of the hip.

Australopithecus sediba

The most recent addition to the hominin family tree is Australopithecus sediba, named following discoveries made in South Africa at Malapa Cave. “Sediba” is a Lesotho word meaning “fountain” or “wellspring.”  Au. sediba is dated to between 1.78 and 1.95 million years ago (ma) using biochronology (a relative dating method utilizjng fossilized non-hominin animals)), paleomagnetism (observing the record of Earth’s magnetic field preserved in magnetic minerals), and uranium-lead (a radioisotoic method that measures the amount of uranium that has decayed to lead in a geologic sample) techniques.  Au. sediba has associated cranial (the skull minus the lower jaw) and postcranial (the skeleton minus the skull) remains showing a mosaic of primitive (shared with the ancestral form) and derived (different from the ancestral form) characteristics.  This mosaic of features suggests links between Au. sediba and other species in the genus.  Australopithecus as well as similarities to species in the genus Homo.  Au. sediba is important because it provides insights into hominin variation around the period when the genus Homo emerged.  The skull and dentition of Au. sediba display a mosaic of primitive features—in this case, similarities to other species in the genus Australopithecus—and derived features—in this case, features more closely resembling species in the genus Homo.  Cranially, the features that link it to Australopithecus include a small cranial capacity (around 420 cubic centimeters), pronounced brow ridges, and enlarged tooth cusps (the pointed eminences on teeth) spaced close together.  The discoverers of Au. sediba argue that, among the australopith species, it most closely resembles Australopithecus africanus, which they argue is its likely ancestor.  Many differences between Au. sediba and Au. africanus, however, are evident; for example the brain case of Au. sediba is much more vertical on its sides, the temporal lines (which mark the attachment of a chewing muscle that closes the jaw) are widely spaced, its cheek bones are smaller, and its molars are long relative to their width.  These features not only set apart this new species from other australopith species, but also link Au. sediba to species in the genus Homo.  

Homo rudolfensis

The earliest fossils from the genus Homo are found in eastern, southeastern, and southern Africa.  Three species comprise early Homo: Homo rudolfensis (2.5-1.8 million years ago [mya]), H. habilis (2.1-1.5 mya, with which H. rudolfensisshares many similarities) and H. erectus (1.8-0.9 mya).  The earliest known species of early Homo, H. rudolfensis fossils are found in Kenya, Ethiopia and northern Malawi.  The subject taxon displays an intriguing mix of primitive (traits that are shared with an ancestor) and derived traits (traits different from those found in the ancestral species) that make taxonomic and phylogenetic interpretations difficult and controversial.

H. rudolfensis is named for the fossil KNM-ER 1470, found on the east side of Lake Rudolf (now Lake Turkana) in Kenya.  KNM-ER 1470 most clearly exemplifies H. rudolfensis, and is characterized by a large cranial capacity (around 750 cc), large cheek teeth and a long face that is broad across the orbits (eye sockets) and flattened below the nose.  Brain endocasts (a cast made of the mold formed by the impression the brain makes on the inside of the brain case, providing a replica of the exterior surface of the brain) indicate that Broca’s area, an area of the brain associated with speech, is more clearly developed in H. rudolfensis than in australopiths.  However, it must be noted that possessing the neurological architecture (i.e., structures within the brain) for speech does not mean that H. rudolfensis used spoken language.  In addition to a large brain, H. ridolfensis has very large (i.e., megadont) premolar and molar teeth (i.e., cheek teeth) similar to australopiths, which has led some researchers to question its inclusion in the genus Homo.

                                                                                 Homo neanderthalensis

Remains of Homo neanderthalensis have been found at sites throughout Europe, as well as in western Asia.  Fossils assigned to this species are also found as far east as Uzbekistan, in Central Asia.  The sites from which this speciess is known, which are predominantly cave sites, date from roughly 150 thousand years ago (ka) to as late as roughly 30 ka. Homo neanderthalensis displays many unique features, including features in the skull and postcranial skeleton (skeleton minus skull), which are related to their adaptation to hunting large game in cold environments.  Homo neanderthalensisalso had sophisticated stone tool technologies designed to hunt large mammals at close range.  This species is important to human evolution because it was contemporary with Homo sapiens and is therefore crucial to our understanding of the origin of our species.

Many of the unique features possessed by H. neanderthalensis are found in the skull.  As with Homo erectus, the general shape of the Homo neanderthalensis skull is long and low with large browridges.  Unlike those of H. erectus, however, the browridges of Homo neanderthalensis form individual arches above each eye orbit.  (The evolutionary significance of heavy brow ridges, called supra orbital tori, is not certain; scientists are confident they did not act as a visor against the sun, did not contribute to the structural strength of the cranium and were not needed as eye protection. Some researchers suggestb they may have been part of a mate recognition system.) In  this way, the Homo neanderthalensis skull resembles that of Homo heidelbergensis. The Homo neanderthalensis skull is quite large, with brain sizes averaging over 1400 cubic centimeters (cc.).  Indeed, the brains of Homo neanderthalensis were bigger than those of Homo sapiens; when judged in relation to body size (see below), however, the brain of Homo neanderthalensis is slightly smaller than that of Homo sapiens.  The middle and lower parts of the  face are positioned far forward relative to the braincase (a condition called “midfacial prognathism”), giving the zygomatics (cheek bones) a “swept back” appearance.  The nasal aperture (hole for the nose) in Homo neanderthalensis is very larger, especially when compared to those of Homo sapiens.  Because the widest point of the cranium (skill minus lower jaw) is across the middle of the braincase, the skull of Homo neanderthalensis is oval-shaped when viewed from behind (the so-called “en bombe” shape).  The braincase also exhibits unique features not found in other hominin species—e.g., occipital buns (thickened, projecting areas at the back of the skull) and suprainiac fossae (small depressions at the back of the skull, just above the occipital bun).   The mandibles (lower jaws) are also large and bear molar teeth with large pulp chambers (the area below the enamel in which nerves and blood vessels reside).

The postcranial skeleton of Homo neanderthalensis also exhibits unique features.  The entire postcranial skeleton is very heavily-built with thick bones.  Individuals were short compared to modern humans; their bodies were also wider, with wider shoulders, rib cages, and hips.  The limb bones were short and the distal segments of the limbs (the bones of the forearm and lower leg) were particularly short.  These features of the postcranial skeleton are similar to those seen in other mammals that live in cold environments.  That is, the skeleton is short and wide to minimize surface area (thereby minimizing heat loss) while maintaining the same mass.

Reference: http://www.becominghuman.org/node/human-lineage-through-time

Evo! Evo! Evo! Evolutioooon!

The first living organisms to appear on the earth are thought to have been anaerobic unicellular organisms, who used marine organic substances without using oxygen. Let us now look at the changes that occurred in organisms over time according to the divisions of geological time periods.
The period from the formation of the earth until 560 million years ago is called the Precambrian age, and the first life form appeared during this time. Later, photosynthetic bacteria and cyanobacteria appeared in the ocean. These bacteria were able to synthesize organic substances using carbon dioxide, thus causing oxygen to gradually increase in the atmosphere. Organisms became multicellular, and eukaryotes emerged. Radiolarians (protozoa), sponges, and green algae emerged at the end of the Precambrian age.
Concurrently, the increased oxygen was changed to ozone by the ultraviolet rays in the stratosphere 10–50 km above the earth. This ozone formed a layer that blocked the harmful ultraviolet rays, preventing them from reaching the earth's surface. This condition enabled living organisms to advance from sea to land. In the Paleozoic era about 400 million years ago, the first organisms to advance to land were bryophytes.
During the Paleozoic era, fishes and amphibians appeared and flourished in water, and ferns flourished on land. In the Mesozoic era, reptiles such as dinosaurs flourished, and gymnospermous plants such as conifers dominated the ecosystem. The Cenozoic era began when large reptiles gradually became extinct after the earth was struck by a meteorite, ushering in the era of angiosperms and mammals, including humans.

References: http://creationwiki.org/pool/images/thumb/2/28/Geo_time.JPG/300px-Geo_time.JPG 

Natural Selection! And I'm First Pick, Naturally!

Natural selection is the primary way that organisms become better adapted to their environment. It relates to phenotype since the animals who adapt to their environment have different personality. The animals each have different genes so that relates to genotypes. Finally some reproduction may have a mutation through each offspring. A exaptation is a change in the trait during evolution.

Natural selection- References- http://www.google.com/imgres?q=natural+selection&num=10&um=1&hl=en&safe=active&client=safari&rls=en&biw=1278&bih=843&tbm=isch&tbnid=mdZm2z2wQ3GAzM:&imgrefurl=http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/misconceps/IDtrying.shtml&docid=MknLR5ZNM5hd2M&imgurl=http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/misconceps/images/misconceptions_beavers2.gif&w=401&h=302&ei=XoZGT6TnFKTaiQLWjJ3bDQ&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=364&sig=106118596005183164299&sqi=2&page=1&tbnh=139&tbnw=199&start=0&ndsp=23&ved=1t:429,r:7,s:0&tx=50&ty=71&surl=1 

Phenotype- Reference- http://www.google.com/imgres?q=phenotype&um=1&hl=en&safe=active&client=safari&sa=N&rls=en&biw=1278&bih=843&tbm=isch&tbnid=L18QWQtkgdG0sM:&imgrefurl=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/anxiety-files/201003/misunderstanding-evolutionary-theory&docid=x_oDqb82m7Dh1M&imgurl=http://www.psychologytoday.com/files/u76/phenotype.JPG&w=300&h=286&ei=8oZGT-atJMHZiALb-JzbDQ&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=399&sig=106118596005183164299&page=1&tbnh=150&tbnw=157&start=0&ndsp=21&ved=1t:429,r:1,s:0&tx=53&ty=44&surl=1 

Genotype- Reference- http://www.google.com/imgres?q=genotype&num=10&um=1&hl=en&safe=active&client=safari&rls=en&biw=1278&bih=843&tbm=isch&tbnid=3NkTFu5kndK9eM:&imgrefurl=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2006/12/from_genes_to_traits_how_genot.php&docid=Q3rCewEkK4yqqM&imgurl=http://scienceblogs.com/clock/upload/2006/12/a1%252520genotype%252520phenotype%252520mapping.jpg&w=412&h=328&ei=JIdGT_mrN4mPigKUnqDbDQ&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=195&sig=106118596005183164299&sqi=2&page=1&tbnh=151&tbnw=196&start=0&ndsp=20&ved=1t:429,r:0,s:0&tx=57&ty=0&surl=1 

Mutation- Reference- http://www.google.com/imgres?q=mutation&num=10&um=1&hl=en&safe=active&client=safari&rls=en&biw=1278&bih=843&tbm=isch&tbnid=TIsnU5zLTw-5HM:&imgrefurl=http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/GG/mutation.php&docid=MxmoU42fk-CENM&imgurl=http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/GG/images/mutation.gif&w=450&h=435&ei=YodGT7SCDsjciQKqwMzbDQ&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=311&sig=106118596005183164299&sqi=2&page=1&tbnh=152&tbnw=162&start=0&ndsp=24&ved=1t:429,r:1,s:0&tx=37&ty=68&surl=1 

Exaptation- Reference- http://www.google.com/imgres?q=expatation&um=1&hl=en&safe=active&client=safari&sa=N&rls=en&biw=1278&bih=843&tbm=isch&tbnid=D4n6hseQIgYRmM:&imgrefurl=http://www.cockerworld.net/Black/blacks2.htm&docid=z_cY8wF5jvVZiM&imgurl=http://www.cockerworld.net/Black/flipper.jpg&w=339&h=308&ei=rYdGT-3PH479iQKq4-zaDQ&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=319&sig=106118596005183164299&page=1&tbnh=133&tbnw=137&start=0&ndsp=25&ved=1t:429,r:17,s:0&tx=52&ty=67&surl=1

Cloning! Spooky!

If a clone originates from an existing person, who is the parent?

I believe the parent would be the person who's gene it came from. Since in a regular birth the child would have the same gene as there parents. Even if the outcome would be identical since it is a clone of the same genes, the person who's gene is in the clone should be the parent of the child. 

http://www.google.com/imgres?q=clones&um=1&hl=en&safe=active&client=safari&sa=N&rls=en&biw=1278&bih=843&tbm=isch&tbnid=zOJv4iLso4UjaM:&imgrefurl=http://www.sodahead.com/living/lets-picture-an-scenario-if-human-cloning-was-legal-should-those-clones-be-treated-as-other-human/question-1957455/%3Fpage%3D7&docid=FPSZZdaSFOZO5M&imgurl=http://images.sodahead.com/polls/001957455/3752698267_human_cloning_answer_1_xlarge.jpeg&w=350&h=261&ei=HYNGT6e9Ms3WiALw__naDQ&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=498&sig=106118596005183164299&page=1&tbnh=150&tbnw=201&start=0&ndsp=22&ved=1t:429,r:9,s:0&tx=140&ty=53&surl=1

Mutation! TMNT! Wahahaha!

Sense mutation- this is sometimes seen with a single substitution mutation when the change in the DNA base sequence results in a new codon that is still coding for the same amino acid. (All amino acids are coded for by more than one codon.)

References: http://www.google.com/imgres?q=Sense+mutation&um=1&hl=en&safe=active&client=safari&sa=N&rls=en&biw=1278&bih=843&tbm=isch&tbnid=Y5W6ejygRqWi6M:&imgrefurl=http://www.usmle-forums.com/usmle-step-1-forum/1036-delta-f508-cystic-fibrosis-mutation.html&docid=y3lzRRmhxO9kcM&imgurl=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/posters/chromosome/Gifs/CFTRdel4.gif&w=275&h=230&ei=0kI9T8fcE6n9iQLln8SgAQ&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=858&vpy=163&dur=577&hovh=184&hovw=220&tx=43&ty=110&sig=106118596005183164299&page=1&tbnh=152&tbnw=177&start=0&ndsp=24&ved=0CFUQrQMwBA&surl=1 

Nonsense Mutations- the term "nonsense mutation is used because the stop codon has "no sense" for an amino acid. Nonsense mutations cause the protein to be cut off early and therefore incomplete, which usually renders it non-functional. Cystic fibrosis is a disease caused by a nonsense mutation.

References: http://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=nonsense+mutation&oe=UTF-8&surl=1&safe=active&um=1&ie=UTF-8&hl=en&tbm=isch&source=og&sa=N&tab=wi&ei=Q0M9T4iNHImpiQKvh_3LAQ&biw=1278&bih=843&sei=RUM9T72TKuvRiALjxN2WAQ 

Deletion Mutation- In genetics, a deletion (also called gene deletion, deficiency, or deletion mutation) (sign: Δ) is a mutation (a genetic aberration) in which a part of a chromosome or a sequence of DNA is missing. Deletion is the loss of genetic material. Any number of nucleotides can be deleted, from a single base to an entire piece of chromosome.^[1] Deletions can be caused by errors in chromosomal crossover duringmeiosis. This causes several serious genetic diseases. Deletion also causes frameshift.

References: http://www.google.com/imgres?q=deletion+mutation&um=1&hl=en&safe=active&client=safari&sa=N&rls=en&biw=1278&bih=843&tbm=isch&tbnid=Aqh-Ay2wD_1f5M:&imgrefurl=http://www.ebpi-kits.com/Deletion%2520Mutation.html&docid=fPMOHioivJLlXM&imgurl=http://www.ebpi-kits.com/images/TA100%252520Deletion%252520Mutation.jpg&w=550&h=400&ei=lkQ9T6H4MunbiAKc7umMAQ&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=321&vpy=169&dur=431&hovh=155&hovw=210&tx=130&ty=89&sig=106118596005183164299&page=1&tbnh=155&tbnw=210&start=0&ndsp=24&ved=0CEkQrQMwAQ&surl=1 

Insertion Mutation-In genetics, an insertion (also called an insertion mutation) is the addition of one or more nucleotide base pairs into a DNAsequence. This can often happen in microsatellite regions due to the DNA polymerase slipping. Insertions can be anywhere in size from one base pair incorrectly inserted into a DNA sequence to a section of one chromosome inserted into another.

On a chromosome level, an insertion refers to the insertion of a larger sequence into a chromosome. This can happen due to unequal crossover during meiosis.

References: http://www.google.com/imgres?q=insertion+mutation&um=1&hl=en&safe=active&client=safari&sa=N&rls=en&biw=1278&bih=843&tbm=isch&tbnid=1vXfcGeqlq75gM:&imgrefurl=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insertion_(genetics)&docid=-EJBB_BTrSrlPM&imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Insertion-genetics.png/300px-Insertion-genetics.png&w=300&h=207&ei=pkU9T5reCOmRiQLTx-yLAQ&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=323&sig=106118596005183164299&page=1&tbnh=150&tbnw=224&start=0&ndsp=20&ved=0CEkQrQMwAQ&tx=156&ty=31&surl=1 

 frameshift mutation (also called a framing error or a reading frame shift) is a genetic mutation caused by indels (insertions or deletions) of a number of nucleotides that is not evenly divisible by three from a DNA sequence. Due to the triplet nature of gene expression by codons, the insertion or deletion can change the reading frame (the grouping of the codons), resulting in a completely different translation from the original. The earlier in the sequence the deletion or insertion occurs, the more altered the protein produced is.

Reference: http://www.google.com/imgres?q=frameshift+mutation&um=1&hl=en&safe=active&client=safari&sa=N&rls=en&biw=1278&bih=843&tbm=isch&tbnid=LVUHni2efad78M:&imgrefurl=http://www.daftblogger.com/genetic-diseases-and-mutations/&docid=rT-KmE_tav0DtM&imgurl=http://www.daftblogger.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/frameshift-mutation.jpg&w=350&h=329&ei=M0Y9T-6DKPPWiALcv9G_AQ&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=323&sig=106118596005183164299&page=1&tbnh=164&tbnw=173&start=0&ndsp=22&ved=0CFEQrQMwAw&tx=76&ty=68&surl=1 

Point mutation-A point mutation, or single base substitution, is a type of mutation that causes the replacement of a single base nucleotidewith another nucleotide of the genetic material, DNA or RNA.

Reference: http://www.google.com/imgres?q=Point+mutation&um=1&hl=en&safe=active&client=safari&sa=N&rls=en&biw=1278&bih=843&tbm=isch&tbnid=1JDAox6MXodVOM:&imgrefurl=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_mutation&docid=4xxh8V3MPPXi1M&imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Point_mutations-en.png/301px-Point_mutations-en.png&w=301&h=160&ei=bkY9T7ueILDXiALNkJCqAQ&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=203&vpy=191&dur=344&hovh=128&hovw=240&tx=184&ty=77&sig=106118596005183164299&page=1&tbnh=109&tbnw=205&start=0&ndsp=22&ved=0CEUQrQMwAA&surl=1 

Translocation Mutation-n genetics , a chromosome translocation is a chromosome abnormally caused by rearrangement of parts between non humologous chromosomes a genes fusion .may be created when the translocation join two otherwise separate genes , the occurrence of which is common in cancer .

Reference: http://www.google.com/imgres?q=translocation+mutation&um=1&hl=en&safe=active&client=safari&sa=N&rls=en&biw=1278&bih=843&tbm=isch&tbnid=Su1W_zE6X_dz3M:&imgrefurl=http://staff.jccc.net/pdecell/evolution/mutations/mutation.html&docid=7lyotF6bz2HWEM&imgurl=http://staff.jccc.net/pdecell/evolution/mutations/translocation.gif&w=694&h=317&ei=5kY9T_HTLq-MigLLkJ3BAQ&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=399&vpy=179&dur=1053&hovh=152&hovw=332&tx=112&ty=100&sig=106118596005183164299&page=1&tbnh=104&tbnw=228&start=0&ndsp=22&ved=0CEkQrQMwAQ&surl=1

Semester 2: BOW 1! YEAH!

Protein synthesis- STEP 1: The first step in protein synthesis is the transcription of mRNA from a DNA gene in the nucleus. At some other prior time, the various other types of RNA have been synthesized using the appropriate DNA. The RNAs migrate from the nucleus into the cytoplasm.

Prior to the beginning of the protein synthesis, all of the component parts are assembled in the ribosome which is the brown/tan structure in the left graphic.

STEP 2: Initiation:
In the cytoplasm, protein synthesis is actually initiated by the AUG codon on mRNA. The AUG codon signals both the interaction of the ribosome with m-RNA and also the tRNA with the anticodons (UAC). The tRNA which initiates the protein synthesis has N-formyl-methionine attached. The formyl group is really formic acid converted to an amide using the -NH₂ group on methionine (left most graphic)
The next step is for a second tRNA to approach the mRNA (codon - CCG). This is the code for proline. The anticodon of the proline tRNA which reads this is GGC. The final process is to start growing peptide chain by having amine of proline to bond to the carboxyl acid group of methinone (met) in order to elongate the peptide.

STEP 3: Elongation:
Elongation of the peptide begins as various tRNA's read the next codon. In the example on the left the next tRNA to read the mRNA is tyrosine. When the correct match with the anticodons of a tRNA has been found, the tyrosine forms a peptide bond with the growing peptide chain .
The proline is now hydrolyzed from the tRNA. The proline tRNA now moves away from the ribosome and back into the cytoplasm to reattach another proline amino acid.

Step 4: Elongation and Termination:
When the stop signal on mRNA is reached, the protein synthesis is terminated. The last amino acid is hydrolyzed from its t-RNA.
The peptide chain leaves the ribosome. The N-formyl-methionine that was used to initiate the protein synthesis is also hydrolyzed from the completed peptide at this time.
The ribosome is now ready to repeat the synthesis several more times.

References- http://www.google.com/imgres?q=protein+synthesis&um=1&hl=en&safe=active&client=safari&sa=N&rls=en&biw=1278&bih=843&tbm=isch&tbnid=NTPJHGk4VSDBNM:&imgrefurl=http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/12-dna.htm&docid=u2Qw-KOt8YzYvM&imgurl=http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/images/dna.gif&w=198&h=400&ei=SNEqT5RpxdWIAvjmpNkK&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=424&sig=106118596005183164299&page=1&tbnh=151&tbnw=75&start=0&ndsp=24&ved=1t:429,r:7,s:0&tx=21&ty=98&surl=1 

Extra! Extra! Get all the credit!

What topics really confused you?
The most confusing thing about biology is having to memorize over 15 terms a chapter, and all the terms are 8 letters long. Such as glycolisis, polypeptide, monosacharride, etc. (wrong spelling (x_x)!)

What topics do you feel very clear on?
I feel very confident in naming cell organelles and organelle functions; as well as naming different prokaryotes and eukaryotes

What lab/activity was your favorite? Why?
The song lab because making the rap was fun and I like work that pushes me to be creative.

What lab/activity was your least favorite? Why?
The microscope lab because I had the hardest time understanding that the most.

If you could change something about the class to make it better, for instance the type of homework (not the amount) what would it be and why?
More labs which involve drawing and music, because it's more fun.